Diagram showing the PIK3/AKT/MAPK signalling pathway (see text for explanation): AKT, AK (Akr mouse) strain transforming; BRAF, B-raf (rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma); CRAF, C-raf (rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma); CREB, cAMP response element-binding protein; 4EBP1, Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1; ERK1, extracellular signal regulated kinase 1; ERK2, extracellular signal regulated kinase 2; GSK3, glycogen synthase kinase 3; HRAS, Harvey rat sarcoma viral (Vras) oncogene homolog; HRAS-GTP, Harvey rat sarcoma viral (V-ras) oncogene homolog glucose triphosphate; KRAS, Kirsten rat sarcoma viral (V-ras) oncogene homolog; KRAS-GTP, Kirsten rat sarcoma viral (V-ras) oncogene homolog glucose triphosphate; GF, growth factor; MAP2K1, mitogen activated protein 2 kinase 1; MAP2K2, mitogen activated protein 2 kinase 2; MDM2, mouse double minute 2 homolog; MEK1, MAPK-extracellular kinase 1; MEK2, MAPK-extracellular kinase 2; mTORC1, mammalian target of rapamycin complex-1; mTORC2, mammalian target of rapamycin complex-2; NFkb, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; NRAS, Neuroblastoma rat sarcoma viral (V-ras) oncogene homolog; NRAS-GTP, Neuroblastoma rat sarcoma viral (V-ras) oncogene homolog glucose triphosphate; p70S6K, protein 70 serine/threonine 6 kinase; p120-GAP, p120-GTPase activating protein; PDK1, Phosphoinositide dependent kinase 1; PIK3, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase; PIK3CA, phosphatidylinositol- 3-kinase catalytic a subunit; PIK3R, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase regulatory subunit; PIP2, phosphatidylinositol bi-phosphate; PIP3, phosphatidylinositol tri-phosphate; PP1C, protein phosphatase 1 catalytic subunit C; PTEN, phosphatase and tensin homolog; RAF, rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma protein; Raptor, regulatory associated protein of mTOR; RAS-GTP, rat sarcoma viral (V-ras) oncogene homolog glucose triphosphate; RASA1, rat sarcoma viral (V-ras) oncogene homolog GTPase activating protein 1; Rictor, rapamycin insensitive companion of mTOR; RTK, tyrosine kinase receptor; SHOC1, suppressor of C